Brittany Huschka(1), Carolyn Challacombe(1), Alejandro G. Marangoni(2) , KoushikSeetharaman(3)

Graduate students(1), Professor(2) and Associate Professor(3) ,

Department of Food Science,University of Guelph

Contact information

Dr. Koushik SeetharamanAssociate Professor and Cereals Chair

Department of Food ScienceUniversity of Guelph, Guelph, ON

519-824-4160Ext 52204; F: 519-824-6631;

Email: kseethar@uoguelph.ca

Cereal Chemistry “First Look” paper • doi: 10.1094/CCHEM-03-10-0041 • posted 02/22/2011

This paper has been peer reviewed and accepted for publication but has not yet been copy edited or proof read. The final published version may differ.

Abstract

Monoacylglycerol-stabilized oil in water emulsion (MAG gel) is an alternate shortening that is free of trans fatty acids, and low in saturated fatty acids. However, the behavior of MAG gels in comparison to other lipids has not been studied. This study investigated effects of structured MAG gel, a mixture of MAG gels’ unstructured components (mixture), canola oil (oil) or interesterified soy shortening (IE Soy) at different levels (6-24%) on hard or soft wheat dough properties. Doughs were prepared with different lipid types at equivalent lipid contents. Dough mixing and water absorption parameters were evaluated using a Farinograph; gluten behavior was measured using a Gluten Peak Tester (GPT); and pasting characteristics were measured using a Micro-ViscoAmyloGraph (MVAG). Water absorption values decreased with increasing lipid content. Dough development times were similar between the MAG gel and IE Soy, but Farinogram curve characteristics during mixing were similar between MAG gel, mixture and oil. The trend for peak max time in GPT was similar between MAG gel and IE Soy exhibiting delayed gluten aggregation; whereas mixture and oil exhibited earlier gluten aggregation. In MVAG, starch interaction with monoglyceride component of MAG gel and mixture appeared to be the dominating factor resulting in an increased pasting temperature and a second viscosity peak during cooling at higher levels of lipid addition.

Key Words

shortening, lipid, dough, rheology, farinograph, gluten peak tester, microviscoamylograph

Introduction

Lipids are utilized in a majority of baked products; in bread formulations at a level56 of 2-5%, in cakes at a level of 5-25%, in sweet goods at a level of 20-30%, in puff pastry57 at a level of 30-40% and in pie crust at a level of 20-35% on a flour weight basis (fwb). Lipids in baked goods serve multiple purposes including ‘shortening’, lubrication, aeration, help with heat transfer, extension of shelf life, as well as provide structure and desirable textural properties such as tenderness, richness and improved mouthfeel. Lipids used in baked products such as liquid oils or high melting plastic fats have a range of properties depending on the specific applications. In recent years the baking industry has been seeking alternatives to solid hydrogenated shortening that provide unique functionality to baked products but are low in trans fatty acids. Interesterified fats are one alternative but they still contain high levels saturated fatty acids (Table 1) that are also linked to negative health effects (World Health Organization 2004).

The applications of lipids and emulsifiers in baked products have been extensively studied for their effects on different characteristics, particularly dispersion, lubrication and softening in bread (Azizi, Rajabzadeh, and Riahi 2003; Azizi and Rao 2004b; Baldwin, Baldry, and Johansen 1972; Ghotra, Dyal, and Narine 2002; Goesaert71 et al 2005) and biscuits/cookies (Baldwin, Baldry, and Johansen 1972; Chevallier 2000; Ghotra, Dyal, and Narine 2002; Jissy Jacob and Leelavathi K 2007; Maache-Rezzoug et al 1998; Manohar and Rao 1999; Pareyt 2008; Sudha et al 2007; Zoulias, Oreopoulou, and Kounalaki 2002). Lipids and emulsifiers have also been investigated for their interactions with starch (Azizi and Rao 2005; Ghotra, Dyal, and Narine 2002;6 Mira, Eliasson, and Persson 2005; Stauffer 1999; Watanabe, Larsson, and Ann-Charlotte 2002) Starch-lipid complexes can have a large effect on starch gelatinization and retrogradation characteristics (Goesaert et al 2005).

The structured shortening alternative (MAG gel) used in this study is a cellular solid that is an oil-in-water emulsion with water-swollen monoacylglycerol multilamellae surrounding 1-5 micrometer oil globules (Figure 1). The globules are interconnected with each other via hydrogen bonding and stearic acid aids in both emulsion formation, water-binding and surface charge modulation (Marangoni et al 2007). The physicochemical and structural attributes of MAG gels have been well characterized; and it has also been demonstrated that the consumption of MAG gels lowers triglyceride levels and free fatty acids after ingestion, as well as decreasing insulin sensitivity compared to oil consumption (Marangoni et al 2007). MAG gel is composed of canola oil (55.25%), water (40%), monoglyceride (4.5%) and stearic acid (0.25%). Mono- and diglycerides are the most widely used food grade emulsifiers and are generally added to bakery products at a level of 0.75-1% to improve dough softness and for shelf life extension (Stauffer 1999). Structured MAG gel is a solid at room temperature, similar to other commercial shortening, but is composed of structured liquid oil, water and monoglyceride.

While the effects of individual components that make up MAG gel on dough and baked product attributes have been investigated extensively, questions remain about the functionality of structured MAG gels in baked products. This study compares the functionality of the MAG gel to a mixture of its unstructured components, interesterified soy shortening (IE Soy) or canola oil with hard or soft wheat flour with lipid contentsranging from 6 up to 24% which is the standard lipid content (fwb) 99 in an AACC cookie procedure.

Materials and Methods

Hard wheat flour (HWF; 12% moisture, 12% protein) and soft wheat flour (SWF; 12%moisture, 8% protein) were provided by Griffith Laboratories (Toronto, ON, Canada).Wheat starch (Midsol™ 50) was provided by MGP Ingredients Inc. (Atchison, KS, USA).Interestserified soy shortening (IE Soy) was provided by Archer Daniels MidlandCompany (Decatur, Illinois, USA). Canola oil was provided by Sunspun (Toronto, ON,Canada). MAG gel is composed of 55.25% canola oil (Sunspun, Toronto, ON,Canada), 40% deionized water, 4.5% distilled monoglyceride (Caravan Ingredients,Lenexa, KS, USA), and 0.25% stearic acid (Caravan Ingredients, Lenexa, KS, USA).MAG gel was produced by vigorously mixing a hot (75°C) oil-monoglyceride solutionwith alkaline deionized water by using an immersion hand blender and a static mixerdescribed by Marangoni et al. 2007. The mixture was produced by combining the sameproportions of deionized water (40%), canola oil (55.25%), and monoglyceride (4.5%)present in the MAG gel at room temperature prior to experimentation.

Microscopy

Monoacylglycerol crystals are birefringent and their microstructure encapsulating theliquid oil droplets in the MAG gel can be conveniently observed using polarized lightmicroscopy (PLM). For the PLM study, a small droplet (~10L) of MAG gel was placedon the glass slide, and then a glass cover was placed over the sample and slightlycompressed to form a uniform film with approximate thickness of 10-15um. Themicrostructure of the MAG gel was observed by using an Olympus BH microscope(Tokyo, Japan). Images were acquired with a Sony XC-75 CCD 122 video camera (SonyCorporation, Japan), and an LG-3 PCI frame grabber using Scion Image (ScionCorporation, Frederick, MD) using a 40x long range objective lens with a numerical aperture of 0.9.

Farinograph

Hard or soft wheat flour samples with 0, 6, 12, 18 or 24% of MAG gel, mixture, IE Soy oroil on an equal lipid basis were analyzed in a Farinograph-E (Brabender GmBh,Duisburg, Germany) using AACC Method 54-21 (AACC, 2000) in a 50 g mixing bowl ata constant temperature of 30°C. The amount of water added was adjusted to obtain aconsistency of 500 BU MAG gel, mixture, IE Soy and oil were added directly to the flouron an equal lipid basis (Table 2) and on a flour weight basis (fwb). The lipids wereblended in the Farinograph to obtain a homogenous mixture for one minute before theaddition of water. Water absorption values at 500 BU, and dough development timeswere obtained from the software. All analyses were conducted in duplicate. Statisticalanalysis was conducted on water absorption percentages and dough developmenttimes using SAS version 9.2 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). ANOVA was preformed with averages compared using Tukey’s test (p<0.05). Statistical comparisonis referenced between flour types as well as levels within MAG gel, mixture, IE Soy oroil and within levels between MAG gel, mixture, IE soy or oil.

Gluten Peak Tester

HWF or SWF with the different levels of lipid addition were analyzed using a BrabenderGluten Peak Tester (GPT) (Brabender GmBh, Duisburg, Germany). HWF and SWFsamples were evaluated at flour to water ratios of 0.85 and 1.19, respectively. The totalweight of samples in the cup was 20g. Lipids in the range of 6 to 24% 145 fwb were added.Tests were conducted at 30°C and the samples were mixed at 3000 rpm for 10 min. The moisture content of the MAG gel and mixture were included in the water calculationto obtain the same flour to water ratio for all samples. The GPT records the torquegenerated by the sample and the peak maximum time (PMT) was determined using thesoftware (Brabender GmBh, Duisburg, Germany). All analyses were conducted induplicate. Statistical analysis was conducted on peak maximum times using SASversion 9.2 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). ANOVA was preformed with averagescompared using Tukey’s test (p<0.05). Statistical comparison is referenced betweenflour types as well as levels within MAG gel, mixture, IE soy or oil and within levelsbetween MAG gel, mixture, IE Soy or oil.

Micro-ViscoAmyloGraph

The pasting profiles of HWF, SWF and wheat starch with different levels of lipid additionwere carried out in a Brabender Micro ViscoAmyloGraph (MVAG; Brabender GmBh,Duisburg, Germany). An 8% dry basis (db) slurry was used in the study. The moisturecontent of the MAG gel and mixture were included in the calculation of the water addedto the slurry, so all samples had the same water content. The MAG gel, mixture, IE Soyor oil was added in addition to starch or flour at 6, 12, 18 or 24% levels on a starch orflour weight basis. The suspensions were premixed for 60 s and then subjected tostirring (250 min -1 164 and using a 235 cmg cartridge) with the following temperature profile:heating from 30°C to 95°C at 7.5°C/min, holding at 95°C for 5 min, cooling from 95°C to30°C at 7.5°C/min, holding at 30°C for 5 min. Pasting temperature, peak viscosity andbreakdown viscosity were determined using the software. All analyses were conductedin duplicate. Statistical analysis was conducted on pasting 168 temperature, peak169 temperature, peak viscosity, second peak temperature, second peak viscosity and finalviscosity using SAS version 9.2 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). ANOVA waspreformed with averages compared using Tukey’s test (p<0.05). Statistical comparisonis referenced between flour types and starch as well as levels within MAG gel, mixture,IE Soy or oil and within levels between MAG gel, mixture, IE soy or oil.

Results and Discussion

Effect of lipids on water absorption and dough development

A representative Farinogram curve at the 24% lipid addition level is shown inFigure 2a and 2b for HWF and SWF, respectively. The curves exhibited differentcharacteristics for MAG gel, mixture, IE Soy or oil for SWF and HWF. In HWF, IE Soydough displayed an initial hydration peak, then decreased in consistency and did notreach 500 BU in the 20 min test time. MAG gel, mixture and oil in HWF had lowconsistencies initially displaying no hydration peak and developed at 18, 17.7 and 18.6min respectively. In SWF at 24% lipid addition level IE Soy dough developed at 1 minwhere MAG gel and oil dough displayed low consistencies initially with gradualdevelopment at 6.4 and 9.9 min respectively. The mixture displayed an initial hydrationpeak and then a gradual development at 14 minutes. The MAG gel, mixture and oil provided stability to the SWF at the 24% addition level and did not breakdown to the same extent compared to control.

Farinogram values for dough development time and water absorption of HWF and SWF at different levels of MAG gel, mixture, IE Soy or oil are shown in Figure 3. The amount of water required to reach 500 BU was lower at all lipid levels and types, compared to control for both flour types. The added water to reach 191 500 BU was higherwhen IE Soy shortening, mixture or oil was added compared MAG gel. Furthermore,differences between lipid types were more noticeable in HWF dough than SWF dough. The solid lines (Figure 3) represent total water, including the 40% water present in MAGgel. When the 40% water present in the MAG gel is compensated for in the waterabsorption percentage (dotted line Figure 3), there is a difference between the waterabsorption values for all lipid types in HWF, but not between oil, mixture or MAG gel inSWF. The dotted line for MAG gel is significantly (p<0.05) lower than IE Soy or oil inHWF at 18 and 24% addition, but was not significantly (p<0.05) different from oil at anyaddition level in SWF. The differences between lipid types were most noticeable at thehigher lipid addition levels in both HWF and SWF dough.

Dough development time of HWF and SWF at different levels of lipid addition isdisplayed at the bottom of Figure 3. Dough development time for HWF at 6 or 12% of MAG gel or IE Soy addition were not significantly (p<0.05) different compared to controldough, while dough development was delayed at 18 or 24% level of MAG gel and IESoy addition. The development time for 24% addition of IE Soy is not displayed because the lipid level was too high for the flour to reach 500 BU. The hydration peakwas apparent, and the curve showed an upward slope similar to the 18% IE Soyaddition, but did not develop within the twenty minute test time. Dough development times with oil and mixture at 6, 12 or 18% addition for HWF were significantly (p<0.05)lower than for control, and dough development time was significantly (p<0.05) delayedonly at the 24% level of lipid addition. Development time at the 24% lipid level was notsignificantly (p<0.05) different between MAG gel, mixture or oil. SWF doughdevelopment times at 6 or 12% added lipids were not significantly 214 (p<0.05) differentfrom each other or from control dough. Dough development time with IE Soy was notsignificantly (p<0.05) different from control at any addition level, whereas doughdevelopment time was delayed with 18 and 24% MAG gel addition and with 24% oil andmixture addition compared to control SWF dough. The development time with oil andmixture at 24% addition level was significantly (p<0.05) higher than the development time for dough with MAG gel at the 24% addition level in SWF dough.

With high levels of added lipids to dough, there is a high level of lubrication and little water is required to achieve desired dough consistency. D’Applonia et al (1984)reported a decrease in water absorption and stability on Farinograph characteristicswith the addition of shortening in the range 0 to 6%. If the same amount of water were added to dough containing lipids, then the dough with MAG gel would exhibit the least resistance. The dotted line in Figure 3 shows decreased water absorption for MAG gelin hard wheat flour dough and suggests a softer dough than with IE Soy, oil or mixture; a desirable property for lipids utilized in baked goods to ‘shorten’ or soften dough. A surfactant gel made with 0.5% monoglyceride with varying shortening contents in the range of 0 to 2% were shown to improve Farinograph characteristics, but theimprovements decreased as the amount of shortening within the gel increased from 0-2% (Azizi and Rao 2004a). Furthermore, a canola oil/caprylic acid structured lipidlowered the elastic and viscous attributes of soft wheat flour, which was attributed to a dilution effect of increasing oil content (Agyare et al 2004). Dispersion of lipid plays alarge role in reaching desired Farinogram consistency (Maache-Rezzoug et al 1998).Liquid oils get dispersed in the form of globules which are not effective in coating flour proteins and therefore less effective at ‘shortening’ which leads to 237 an increase in dough consistency. Depending on the firmness of solid lipids, they may get dispersed as large lumps or smeared over flour particles (Baltsavias, Jurgens, and vanVliet 1997). In this research IE Soy is harder and has a higher solid fat index at room temperature than MAG gel and is likely to be dispersed in clumps whereas the MAG gel is likely to be smeared over the flour particles, while liquid oil and the mixture would be dispersed as globules. Therefore, if water absorption is influenced by the lubrication properties and consistency of the added lipid, then liquid oil and the mixture should have the lowest water absorption levels. However, in this case the MAG gel had the lowest water absorption values. This could be due the presence of monoglycerides in the structured MAG gel; and monoglycerides are known to aid in uniform distribution of lipids in dough(O’Brien et al 2003). MAG gel could be more evenly distributed, coating the flour particles resulting in lower amounts of water required to reach 500 BU than oil which isunevenly distributed in globules and IE Soy, which would take more time to be distributed evenly and coat flour particles. In hard wheat flour dough it is of particular interest that less water is required to reach the same consistency dough with the MAG gel as compared to both IE Soy shortening, oil, and mixture even when taking into  consideration the added water (dotted line) from the MAG.  Therefore, the MAG gelstructure appears to confer some additional functionality to the dough that is more evident in HWF dough when compared to SWF dough. These observations on dough development attributes highlight differences in the functionality of the monoglyceride in the structured MAG gel versus the unstructured mixture. The flour proteins in SWF appear to interact with the structured MAG gel resulting in a rapid development time; suggesting either all the water in the structured gel becomes available 260 for absorption orthat the oil is released from the structure resulting in reduced consistency. However,the same effect is not apparent in HWF, where the behaviour of MAG gel and mixture was similar. These differences in dough development time could be a function of several interacting factors including; a) the availability of water during mixing when thewater is present in the structure MAG gel or whether it is free added water; b) the presence of increasing amounts of monoglyceride; and/or c) the availability and activityof monoglyceride when it is in the structure versus when it is added in the mixture.

The development curves at 24% lipid addition level are similar to results described by Jacob et al (2007) with 30% lipid level cookie dough consistencies. The dough containing solid shortening initially displayed the highest consistency similar to IESoy described here and then after mixing decreased in consistency suggesting asoftening and ‘shortening’ effect. Cookie dough containing 30% fwb liquid oil displayed the lowest consistency initially then after mixing increasing in resistance and displaying a higher consistency suggesting less softening and shortening ability after mixing similarto the Farinogram curves for liquid oil, mixture and MAG gel described here.

Effect of lipids on gluten aggregation

Gluten Peak Tester (GPT) profiles of peak maximum time (PMT) are shown in Figure 4. The peak time of HWF and SWF cannot be directly compared since the flour to water ratios was different in the test: however the changes in trends are informative. The PMT of HWF dough with MAG gel significantly (p<0.05) increased at levels greaterthan 12% lipid; and with IE Soy, PMT increased at all lipid addition levels when compared to control dough. However, the trend was opposite for dough with oil or mixture. The increasing trend with MAG gel and IE Soy and the decreasing 283 trend for oil and mixture clearly observed in HWF were somewhat similar in SWF doughs, but the differences between them were smaller. PMT is reflective of the time required for gluten to aggregate and exhibit maximum torque on the spindle. We have established that native starch by itself does not generate torque in the GPT even in presence of lipids and/or monoglyceride (data not shown); therefore, the effects are primarily due tothe gluten proteins. In principle, PMT values of dough are similar to dough development time in a Farinograph; SWF dough develops earlier in the Farinograph compared toHWF dough.  However, the interaction of MAG gel, mixture, IE Soy or oil with gluten inparticular, and the differences between hard and soft wheat gluten proteins, is better elicited in this test. This data also confirms the observations for water absorptionobtained from the Farinogram (Fig 4; dotted line). When the water in the MAG gel isaccounted for it behaves similarly to IE Soy with PMT and water absorption values in HWF; and is similar to IE Soy, mixture and oil for SWF.

The delay in gluten aggregation in HWF with MAG gel or IE Soy when compared to mixture or oil is likely due to the ability of MAG gel or IE Soy to coat flour proteins‘shorten’ and prevent gluten aggregation. Oil and mixture are dispersed in globules andtherefore is likely to have promoted gluten aggregation. The delay in gluten aggregationwith MAG gel could also be influenced by the availability of its structured water. If the water is strongly bound, it could take more time and energy to become available forgluten aggregation. The water present in the MAG gel was compensated for during the addition of water to the GPT sample cup, therefore it is possible that the bound water inthe gel was unavailable for the flour proteins to absorb and utilize for gluten formation that would cause a delay in the time for gluten to aggregate. It 306 is also possible that MAG gel is dispersed quickly and evenly and is efficient at coating and lubricating flour particles to ‘shorten’ them and prevent aggregation. The ability of the MAG gel to prevent gluten aggregation is apparent in this test compared to the mixture containing the same components unstructured which does not prevent gluten aggregation. This is beneficial since MAG gel mimics a similar delay in gluten aggregation as IE Soyshortening which is industrially available as an effective shortening for numerous baked goods.

Effect of lipids on pasting characteristics

The pasting properties of the flours and starch with MAG gel, IE Soy and oil are shown in Table 3. The pasting properties with MAG gel and mixture are shown in Table4. Overall, MAG gel exhibited significant differences based on amount of lipid added and between HWF, SWF and WS. IE Soy and oil exhibited similar pasting characteristics with little differences between levels of addition, but differences were observed between HWF, SWF and WS. Pasting temperature of HWF did not change with increasing levels of either MAG gel or mixture. Pasting temperature significantly(p<0.05) increased with increasing levels of MAG gel addition in SWF and WS; and did not change with the addition of mixture to SWF or WS. Different levels of IE Soy or oil showed no reportable significant (p<0.05) differences within HWF, SWF or WS. Peak temperature significantly (p<0.05) increased in HWF and SWF with the addition of either6% MAG gel or mixture but did not increase with increasing lipid levels thereafter. Nosignificant (p<0.05) differences in peak temperature were observed in HWF, SWF or WS with IE Soy or oil. There was a significant (p<0.05) increase in peak viscosity only in SWF with MAG gel addition at 18 and 24%. Final viscosity 329 had a significantly(p<0.05) decreasing trend with increasing lipid addition of MAG gel and mixture in HWFand WS, and there was a greater decrease in final viscosity for WS. However, the trendwas reversed for SWF wherein the final viscosity increased with lipid addition compared to control. MAG gel had a significantly (p<0.05) lower final viscosity compared to IESoy and oil in HWF and WS. At 18 and 24% levels of MAG gel or mixture addition, asecond peak was observed for both the flours and the starch samples during the cooling cycle shown in Table 4. A second peak was not observed with any level of addition of IESoy or oil and is not shown in Table 3. The temperature and viscosity of the second peaks were higher at 24% MAG gel and mixture addition for both flours but was notsignificantly (p<0.05) different for the starch. Furthermore, the temperature was notsignificantly (p<0.05) different between flour with mixture or MAG gel, but wassignificantly (p<0.05) different between starch with mixture or MAG gel. The viscosityfor the second peak was lowest for SWF and highest for starch with added lipids.Zhang et al (2003) reported a second peak in the presence of starch, lipid and protein together, but that the second peak does not appear when only two of the three components are present. Oil or IE Soy with HWF, SWF or WS did not display a second peak at any level of addition; but monoglyceride by itself did exhibit a second peak (datanot shown). The monoglyceride portion of the structured MAG gel and unstructured mixture seem to dominate their interaction with starch. Differences in the availability ofthe water and monoglyceride in the MAG gel versus the mixture are likely accountable for their significant differences noted in Table 4; particularly the pasting temperature increase with MAG gel in SWF and WS and not with mixture. This increase could resultfrom a delayed availability of monoglyceride and water from the structure 352 until the MAGgel reaches its dropping point and oil is released from the structure. The components ofthe MAG gel become available to interact with starch resulting in the increased temperature which is more apparent in SWF and WS than HWF. Researchers haves hown that starch helices interact with the hydrophobic domains of amphiphilic molecules such as fatty acids, monoglycerides, and surfactants (Stauffer 1999). Starchpastes made with emulsifiers, including monoglyceride, display increases in pasting temperature, hot viscosity, temperature to peak and set-back viscosity (Condepetit andEscher 1992; Eliasson 1986). Lipids added to bakery applications such as shortening also interact with starch, breaking the continuity of the protein and starch structure,reducing starch swelling and gelatinization, resulting in a soft texture (Ghotra, Dyal, andNarine 2002). Monoglyceride starch interactions are beneficial for bakery applicationssuch as cakes because the complexes they form with amylose give cakes a softer texture and longer shelf life (Krog 1977). Azizi and Rao (2004) showed increasing shortening content from 0-2% with 0.5% monoglyceride added to wheat starch resulted in an increase in gelatinization temperature, and an increase in final viscosities. MAGgel exhibited an increase in gelatinization temperature with wheat starch at increasing addition levels, but a decrease in final viscosities, whereas IE Soy showed no significant(p<0.05) difference in gelatinization temperatures at increasing addition levels but exhibited an increase in final viscosity with increasing addition levels. The increase infinal viscosity with IE Soy during cooling is expected since IE Soy solidifies at ambient temperatures, contributing to increased viscosity. Depending on the destruction ofstructured MAG gel during agitation in MVAG, the cooled monoglyceride would increase the final viscosity but the liquid oil portion would decrease the 375 final viscosity. As monoglyceride levels increase, larger effects on pasting properties are expected because with the presence of more surfactant, there is more granule surface coverage or granule penetration and thus complex formation (Mira, Eliasson, and Persson 2005). Again differences were observed in pasting properties between flour type and lipid type. These observations suggest that the MAG gel interacts differently with flour components compared to mixture, IE Soy or oil; and also that gluten protein quality and gluten-starch interaction in flour play a role in the nature of interaction.

Conclusion

This research compared conventional lipid sources to MAG gel and a mixture of its unstructured components at equivalent lipid contents. The water, oil and monoglyceride components structured in the MAG gel seem to give it a) attributes whichare not similar to the same components when added individually in an unstructured form; b) attributes that are different from other lipid sources such as water absorption parameters and pasting profiles; c) attributes that are similar to shortening such as development time and prevention of gluten aggregation. There are significantly(p<0.05) different interactions between MAG gel and HWF or SWF, likely because of the interaction of their protein and starch components with the structured monoglyceride component of the gel. Each of these parameters will play a part in the effectiveness of the MAG gel to replace other lipid sources in baked goods. For example in HWF doughwith MAG gel will require less water to reach optimal development and development time and mode of development will vary with the level of MAG gel replacement. TheMAG gel’s ability to ‘shorten’ and prevent gluten aggregation will be beneficial for baked products that do not rely on gluten network formation for structure.  Differences in the pasting properties with the inclusion of MAG gel will have an effect during heating of baked products, gelatinization of starch as well as retrogradation and staling characteristics compared to other lipid sources.

Literature Cited

AACC International. 2000. Approved Methods of the American Association of CerealChemists, 10th 404 Ed. Method 54-21. The Association: St. Paul, MN.

Azizi, M. H., Rajabzadeh, N., and Riahi, E. 2003. Effect of mono-diglyceride and lecithinon dough rheological characteristics and quality of flat bread. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft Und -Technologie. 36:189-193.

Azizi, M. H. and Rao, G. V. 2004a. Effect of surfactant gel and gum combinations ondough rheological characteristics and quality of bread. J.Food Qual. 27:320-336.

Azizi, M. H. and Rao, G. V. 2004b. Effect of surfactant gels on dough rheologicalcharacteristics and quality of bread. Crit.Rev.Food Sci.Nutr. 44:545.Azizi, M. H. and Rao, G. V. 2005. Effect of surfactant in pasting characteristics ofvarious starches. Food Hydrocoll. 19:739-743.

Baldwin, R. R., Baldry, R. P., and Johansen, R. G. 1972. Fat systems for bakeryproducts. J.Am.Oil Chem.Soc. 49:473-&.

Baltsavias, A., Jurgens, A., and vanVliet, T. 1997. Rheological properties of shortdoughs at small deformation. J.Cereal Sci. 26:289-300.

Chevallier, . 2000. Physicochemical behaviors of sugars, lipids, 418 and gluten in shortdough and biscuit. J.Agric.Food.Chem. 48:1322.

D’Appolonia, B. L. and Kunerth, W. H. 1984. The farinograph handbook. Pages 64.American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc.: St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.

Ghotra, B. S., Dyal, S. D., and Narine, S. S. 2002. Lipid shortenings: A review. FoodRes.Int. 35:1015-1048.

Goesaert, H. et al. 2005. Wheat flour constituents: How they impact bread quality, andhow to impact their functionality. Trends Food Sci.Technol. 16:12-30.

Jissy Jacob and Leelavathi K. 2007. Effect of fat-type on cookie dough and cookiequality. J.Food Eng. 79:299-305.

Krog, N. 1977. Functions of emulsifiers in food systems. J.Am.Oil Chem.Soc. 54:124-131.

Maache-Rezzoug, Z. et al. 1998. Effect of principal ingredients on rheological behaviourof biscuit dough and on quality of biscuits. Journal of Food Engineering. 35:23-42.

Manohar, R. S. and Rao, P. H. 1999. Effect of emulsifiers, fat level and type on therheological characteristics of biscuit dough and quality of biscuits. J.Sci.Food Agric.79:1223-1231.

Marangoni, A. G. et al. 2007. Encapsulating-structuring of edible oil attenuates acuteelevation of blood lipids and insulin in humans. Soft Matters. 3:183.

Mira, I., Eliasson, A. C., and Persson, K. 2005. Effect of surfactant 437 structure on thepasting properties of wheat flour and starch suspensions. Cereal Chem. 82:44-52.

O’Brien, C. M. et al. 2000. Effects of microencapsulated high-fat powders on theempirical and fundamental rheological properties of wheat flour doughs. CerealChem. 77:111-114.

O’Brien, C. M. et al. 2003. Effect of varying the microencapsulation process on thefunctionality of hydrogenated vegetable fat in shortdough biscuits. Food Res.Int.36:215-221.

Pareyt, . 2008. The role of wheat flour constituents, sugar, and fat in low moisture cerealbased products: A review on sugar-snap cookies. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 48:824.

Stauffer, C. E. 1999. Emulsifiers. Pages vi, 102 p. Eagan Press: St. Paul, Minn.Sudha, M. L. et al. 2007. Fat replacement in soft dough biscuits: Its implications ondough rheology and biscuit quality. J.Food Eng. 80:922-930.

Watanabe, A., Larsson, H., Eliasson, and Ann-Charlotte. 2002. Effect of physical stateof nonpolar lipids on rheology and microstructure of gluten-starch and wheat flourdoughs. Cereal Chem. 79:203.World Health Organization. 2004. Global strategy on diet, physical activity and health. .

Zhang, G., and Hammaker, BR. 2003. A three component interaction 454 among starch,protein, and free fatty acids revealed by pasting profiles. J.Agric.Food Chem.51:2797.

Zoulias, E. I., Oreopoulou, V., and Kounalaki, E. 2002. Effect of fat and sugarreplacement on cookie properties. J.Sci.Food Agric. 82:1637-1644.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported through a grant from OMAFRA (Grant #026587).

CoasunInc., generously provided the materials for this research.

.

.

.

Polarazied light micrograph of MAG Gel (Coasun Inc.)

Figure 1: Polarized light micrograph of the MAG gel

Figure 2A and B - Farinogram Development Curves

.

.

Figure 3: Water absorption (top graph) required to reach 500 BU and the development time (bottom graph) for hard and soft wheat flour following the addition of different levels of MAG gel, mixture, IE Soy or oil. The dotted lines for MAG gel water absorption values represent the added water. The solid lines are the total water in the dough, i.e., water present in MAG gel plus added water to reach 500 BU. Significance reported at p<0.05, n=2.

Figure 4. Peak maximum time values, as measured by using a Gluten Peak Tester, of hard and soft wheat dough with increasing levels of lipids added as MAG gel, mixture, IE Soy or oil. Significance reported at p<0.05, n=2.

Table 1: Percent of total lipids, saturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids and water for lipid souces used in this study.

Please see full article for the following tables:

Table 2: Percent of added lipid source based on flour weight needed to obtain standardized lipid contents within dough

Table 3: Micro ViscoAmylograph data for pasting temperature, peak temperature, peak viscosity and final viscosity for HWF, SWF and533 WS with varying addition levels of MAG gel, IE Soy or oil. Means within a treatment type (HWF, SWF, WS) for each pasting attribute within a row with the same letter (a, b, c) are not significantly different (p<0.05), n=2. Mean within each lipid type (0,6,12,18,24%) for each treatment (HWF, SWF, WS) within a column with the same letter (x, y, z) are not significantly different (p,0.05), n=2.

Table 4: Micro ViscoAmyloGraph data for pasting temperature, peak temperature, peak viscosity, second peak 537 temperature, secondpeak viscosity and final viscosity for HWF, SWF and WS with varying addition levels of MAG gel or mixture. Means within a treatmenttype (HWF, SWF, WS) for each pasting attribute within a row with the same letter (a, b, c) are not significantly different (p<0.05), n=2.Means within each lipid type (0,6,12,18,24%) for each treatment (HWF, SWF, WS) within a column with the same letter (x, y, z) are notsignificantly different (p<0.05), n=2.

Download full document in .PDF format

(adapted from www.allrecipes.com)

2 ¼ cups all-purpose flour + ¼ cup whole wheat flour

1 teaspoon baking soda

1 teaspoon ground cinnamon

2 teaspoons ground ginger

½ teaspoon ground cloves

¼ teaspoon kosher salt

¾ cup CoasunSA

1 large egg

¼ cup unsulfured molasses

1 Tablespoon freshly squeezed orange juice

2 Tablespoons sugar

Preheat oven to 350 degrees. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper, set aside.

Sift together 2 1/4 cups all-purpose flour, 1 teaspoon baking soda, 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon, 2 teaspoons ground ginger, 1/2 teaspoon ground cloves, and 1/4 teaspoon kosher salt. Set aside.

In a large mixing bowl with the paddle attachment (a handheld mixer works fine) mix together 3/4 cup CoasunSA and 1 cup sugar.  Add one large egg and mix until incorporated

Now add in 1/4 cup unsulfured molasses and 1 Tablespoon of freshly squeezed orange juice. Mix to combine.

Slowly add in the sifted dry ingredients and whole wheat flour and mix until almost combined. Using a spatula/mixing spoon, fold the ingredients together in order to incorporate them.

Rest dough in fridge for 30 minutes

Roll dough into balls, mine were ~ 1.5 tsp and roll the balls in sugar

Place the cookie dough balls on the baking pan and using the palm of your hand, press the cookies to flatten them a bit.

Bake the cookies at 350 degrees for 10 minutes. Cool for a couple of minutes on the baking sheet. Transfer the cookies to a cooling rack to cool completely.

Happy Baking!

Description

Coasun’s shortening alternative is a zero trans fat, low saturated fat, shortening alternative made with edible vegetable oil, water and an emulsifier.  Coasun is white in appearance, odorless, tasteless, and creamy in texture. The material is also pumpable, an advantageous characteristic that improves material handling.

Applications

Coasun’s shortening alternative can substitute  vegetable shortening, butter, lard and bakers’ margarines in a wide range of bakery applications such as cookies, cakes, scones, tea biscuits, pie and tart shells, pizza dough, bread, brownies, waffles, meal replacement frozen dough, muffins, and biscuits.  Coasun fulfills all the functional requirements of a high quality all-purpose shortening including:

• Excellent plasticity, consistency and stability in a wide temperature range (5-55˚C).  Cutting into flour is extremely easy.  Oil does not leak out and material retains similar consistency.
• High shortening ability.  Coasun’s film interferes with the formation of long gluten strands (hence ‘shortening’).  Oil cannot do this since it forms globules. It has excellent lubricant properties.
• High creaming ability. Coasun incorporates and stabilizes large amounts of air during mixing operations.
• Very high emulsification properties
• Good water absorption properties

Advantages

CoasunSA is a shortening alternative is easily made with any liquid vegetable oil, blend of oils, or blend of fats.  This flexibility provides a wide control over nutritional and functional characteristics and gives your business flexibility to source fats and oils locally or from around the world, making it cost neutral in terms of ingredients.  Depending on the application Coasun can replace your current fat source without compromising cost, taste or flavor.   Your product will also have:

• Fewer calories – usually up to 40% fewer calories from fat
• Significantly less saturated fat
• No tropical fats or oils
• No added trans fats

Saturated fats are found in animal products such as butter, lard or cream as well in tropical fats such as palm and coconut oil, and have been shown to be detrimental toward human health (atherosclerosis, CVD etc…)

Polyunsaturated are neutral toward human health and are found in vegetable oils such as canola

Monounsaturated fats are beneficial toward human health when they replace saturated fats and can be found in olive and canola oil.

Whenever possible it’s best to replace saturated fats with poly or monounsaturated fats, but in baking this can be quite difficult.

Some fat is essential for baking, fat replacements such as applesauce and fruit purees can definitely replace some of the fat, but are most suitable for cakes, and muffins because they tend to produce cakey textures, which are not suitable for crisp cookies.

Trying to replace butter or shortening with oil to decrease saturated fat levels can be quite challenging.  Batter baked goods are much easier to substitute with oil.  Often when trying to decrease saturated levels blending a shortening with oil can be successful too.  Some baked products are very difficult to substitute with oil—crisp cookies for example.  When making cookie dough with oil you miss the essential creaming stage which provides a nice soft cookie dough, easy to handle and when baked gives you a melt in your mouth crisp texture.  When substituting with oil you can get  a hard dough, with oil leaking out, and a very different texture.

Coasun’s shortening alternative provides a great way to utilize healthy oils in a structure shortening alternative.  CoasunSA has the consistency of a shortening and makes a soft, subtle easy to handle dough without any oil leakage, and crisp product texture, with the health benefits of baking with oil, minus the processing inconveniences of baking with oil.

A great baking combination is utilizing Coasun’s structuring technology with Nutrisun’s high stearic high oleic sunflower oil.   Check out their website @ http://www.advantaseeds.com/prod-nutrisun.php

“Nutrisun High stearic-high oleic sunflower oil is the first oil with unique physicochemical and functional properties, which offers a healthy alternative for food elaboration. Basically we achieved a novel natural oil in the sunflower seed: HSHO (High Stearic – High Oleic) which has 18% Stearic (S) and 70% of Oleic (O) with high levels of Sat-O-Sat (12-15%) triglycerides.” taken from http://www.advantaseeds.com/prod-nutrisun.php

Nutrisun is semi-solid at room temperature and can be incorporated as the oil phase in Coasun’s shortening alternative.  Baked goods made combining these two technologies will decrease saturated fat levels in baked goods, while maintaining the processing capability of a shortening for those high saturated fat baked goods.  After some preliminary testing CoasunSA utilizing Nutrisun produces delicious crispy, melt-in your mouth cookies—A Great Combination!

• Minimal mixing is required when incorporating Coasun with dry ingredients

• ≥ 40% moisture adjustment on shortening weight will need to be made

• Gently blend Coasun with dry ingredients; slowly add water to desired consistency. (The addition of water will be much less than with a hard plastic shortening).

Lab scale sample experiment- Pie Shell

*Please note 40% moisture adjustment based on Coasun weight

Method:

1.   Combine flour, sugar and salt

2.   Scale in shortening

3.   Blend till pea size balls of shortening or Coasun form

4.   Add water slowly to desired dough formation

5.   Roll/Sheet and bake accordingly

Nutritional Comparison

• When using Coasun in a low moisture application (i.e. <3% moisture) balancing for water is essential.
• Eliminate as much added moisture from the recipe as possible
• Utilizing a creaming step for this application provides enough volume and aeration to the fat and sugar to incorporate the rest of the dry ingredients without a crumbly texture.
• Utilizing a one stage mix will provide a crumblier texture to the dough.

Nutritional Comparison

• Cut Coasun “Classic” into dry ingredients until uniform, and then add liquids

Lab scale sample experiment- Blueberry Muffin

*please note 20 % moisture adjustment based on shortening weight.

Control Method:

1. Melt shortening and set aside.
2. Equip KitchenAid mixer with paddle.  Add dry ingredients to bowl and pre-blend on low speed for 1 min.
3. Add milk, shortening, and egg to mixer bowl.  Blend on low speed for 10 seconds.
4. Scrape down bowl, remove from mixer.  Add blueberries and fold gently by hand until just incorporated
5. Treat muffin tins with non-stick cooking spray.  Deposit batter such that cups are half full (60g)
6. Bake at 375 F for 22 minutes.

Coasun Process Changes:

1. Coasun “Classic” was cut into dries with paddle for 1 min on low.
2. Then add milk and egg to mixer bowl and blend on low speed for 10 seconds.

Recipe Source: Betty Crocker’s Cookbook

1986

Nutritional Comparison

• During creaming with Coasun “Classic” because of its high water content the majority of sucrose solubilizes, making a fully saturated solution.

• During baking since the majority of sugar is already solubilized the flour soaks up the remaining moisture and the cookie doesn’t get the chance to spread.

• Try making the cookies using a single stage mix (eliminate creaming).  If all of the ingredients are placed in the bowl at the same time the flour gets a chance to absorb some of the moisture and less sugar is solubilized during mixing, allowing it to solubilize during baking which increases cookie spread.

*please note ~ 20 % moisture adjustment based on shortening weight.

Control Method:

1. Equip KitchenAid mixer with paddle.  Add shortening, sugar, start mixer on lowest speed, increase to speed 5.  Cream for 3 minutes.
2. Add liquid egg, and mix on speed 3 for 1 minute.
3. Preblend dry ingredients.  Add to mixer.  Mix on lowest speed, then increase to speed 3 for 2 minutes.
4. Add chocolate chips and mix on low speed until incorporated
5. Use #40 scoop and deposit 30g onto baking tray.  Bake 13 minutes at 350F.

Coasun Process Changes:

1. Add all ingredients to mixing bowl, except chocolate chips (Single stage mix).  Start on low speed and slowly increase to speed 3 for 1 minute.
2. Add chocolate chips and mix on low speed until incorporated
3. Use #40 scoop and deposit 30g onto baking tray.  Bake 13 minutes at 350F.

Nutritional Comparison

• Adjust for 20% moisture based on shortening weight as some water is bound in the monoglyceride bi-layers and unavailable during mixing

• Creaming methods have shown to result in a cake with a coarser crumb

• Try a multi-stage or single stage mix method in which the shortening is blended with dry ingredients and liquids are added at the end, or all the ingredients are mixed simultaneously

Lab scale sample experiment- Hi-ratio yellow cake

*please note 20% moisture adjustment based on shortening weight.

Control Method:

1. Equip KitchenAid mixer with paddle.  Add shortening and sugar to mixing bowl.  Mix on speed 6 until mixture is light and fluffy, about 3 minutes.
2. Add liquid ingredients.  Start on lowest speed, then increase to speed 4 and mix for 2 minutes.
3. Preblend dry ingredients.  Add to mixer in two increments.  Mix on lowest speed, then increase to speed 2 for 1 minute after each addition.
4. Prepare 8” round cake pans with non-stick cooking spray.  Scale 550g batter into pans.  Tap on countertop to remove bubbles.
5. Bake at 350F until a toothpick inserted in the center may be removed without crumbs.

Coasun Process Changes:

1. Dry blend all dries for 1 minute on speed1.
2. Add Coasun “Classic”, blend 30 seconds on speed 1.
3. Add liquids for 15 seconds on speed 1, then mix 1 minute on speed 4.

Source: Baking Science and Technology

Third Edition, 1988

E.J. Byler

Nutritional Comparison

• May need to adjust for ~35% moisture based on shortening weight.

• During creaming with Coasun “Classic” because of its high water content the majority of sucrose solubilizes, making a fully saturated solution.

• Try making the brownies using a single stage mix (eliminate creaming).  If all of the ingredients are placed in the bowl at the same time the flour gets a chance to absorb some of the moisture and less sugar is solubilized during mixing, allowing it to solubilize during baking.

Lab scale sample experiment- Fudgy Brownie

*please note ~35% moisture adjustment based on shortening weight.

Control Method:

1. Add sugar, corn syrup, shortening, eggs, vanilla and milk to the bowl of a KitchenAid mixer.  Equip with paddle.  Begin mixing at low speed until ingredients are started to be incorporated.  Increase speed to 5 and mix for 3 minutes.
2. Blend dry ingredients by hand in a separate bowl.  Add to mixer.  Start on low speed and slowly increase to speed 3.  Mix for 2 minutes, stopping to scrape midway through the mixing time.
3. Pretreat 8” square baking pan with non-stick cooking spray.  Deposit 500grams in pan.
4. Bake at 350F for 24 minutes.

Coasun Process Changes:

1. Add all ingredients to mixing bowl (Single stage mix).  Start on low speed and slowly increase to speed 3 for 1 minute.

Recipe Source: Cookie and Cracker Technology

Third Edition, 1992

Samuel Matz

Nutritional Comparison